Zhou, Q. et al. Tumor abnormality-oriented nanomedicine design. Chem. Rev. 123 , 10920–10989 (2023)..

Wang, S. et al. Fluorescence imaging of pathophysiological microenvironments. Chem. Soc. Rev. 50 , 8887–8902 (2021)..

Kamath, V. et al. Application of fluorescence lifetime imaging-integrated deep learning analysis for cancer research. Light Adv. Manuf. 6 , 522–545 (2025)..

Hong, G. S., Antaris, A. L. & Dai, H. J. Near-infrared fluorophores for biomedical imaging. Nat. Biomed. Eng. 1 , 0010 (2017 )..

Zhao, Z. C. et al. Applications of ultrafast nano-spectroscopy and nano-imaging with tip-based microscopy. eLight 5 , 1 (2025)..

Zhang, Z. J. et al. The fast-growing field of photo-driven theranostics based on aggregation-induced emission. Chem. Soc. Rev. 51 , 1983–2030 (2022)..

Xu, J. C. et al. Recent advances in near-infrared-Ⅱ organic J-aggregates for bio-applications. Coord. Chem. Rev. 528 , 216379 (2025)..

Chen, Y., Wang, S. F. & Zhang, F. Near-infrared luminescence high-contrast in vivo biomedical imaging. Nat. Rev. Bioeng. 1 , 60–78 (2023)..

Li, X. S. et al. Clinical development and potential of photothermal and photodynamic therapies for cancer. Nat. Rev. Clin. Oncol. 17 , 657–674 (2020)..

Yan, D. Y. et al. Multimodal imaging-guided photothermal immunotherapy based on a versatile NIR-Ⅱ aggregation-induced Emission luminogen. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 61 , e202202614 (2022)..

Mikhailova, L. et al. A comparative study of plasmonic nanoparticles for targeted photothermal therapy of melanoma tumors using various irradiation modes. Light Adv. Manuf. 6 , 24–42 (2025)..

Zeng, Z. L. et al. Activatable polymer nanoenzymes for photodynamic immunometabolic cancer therapy. Adv. Mater. 33 , 2007247 (2021)..

Tang, Y. Q. et al. Pyroptosis-mediated synergistic photodynamic and photothermal immunotherapy enabled by a tumor-membrane-targeted photosensitive dimer. Adv. Mater. 35 , 2300232 (2023)..

Liu, H. W. et al. Recent progresses in small-molecule enzymatic fluorescent probes for cancer imaging. Chem. Soc. Rev. 47 , 7140–7180 (2018)..

Han, H. H. et al. Small-molecule fluorescence-based probes for interrogating major organ diseases. Chem. Soc. Rev. 50 , 9391–9429 (2021)..

Pham, T. C. et al. Recent strategies to develop innovative photosensitizers for enhanced photodynamic therapy. Chem. Rev. 121 , 13454–13619 (2021)..

Han, H. H. et al. The design of small-molecule prodrugs and activatable photothe rapeutics for cancer therapy. Chem. Soc. Rev. 52 , 879–920 (2023)..

Wang, Z. C., Tang, Y. Q. & Li, Q. A self-assembling nanoplatform for pyroptosis and ferroptosis enhanced cancer photoimmunotherapy. Light Sci. Appl. 14 , 16 (2025)..

Tang, Y. Q., Wang, Z. C. & Li, Q. Pyroptosis of breast cancer stem cells and immune activation enabled by a multifunctional prodrug photosensitizer. Adv. Funct. Mater. 34 , 2405367 (2024)..

Monici, M. Cell and tissue autofluorescence research and diagnostic applications. Biotechnol. Annu. Rev. 11 , 227–256 (2005)..

Vickerman, B. M. et al. Taking phototherapeutics from concept to clinical launch. Nat. Rev. Chem. 5 , 816–834 (2021)..

Jiang, D. W. et al. Nanomedicines for renal management: from imaging to treatment. Acc. Chem. Res. 53 , 1869–1880 (2020)..

Tang, Y. Q. et al. Hypoxia-responsive photosensitizer targeting dual organelles for photodynamic therapy of tumors. Small 19 , 2205440 (2023)..

Tang, Y. Q. et al. Photoactivated theranostic nanomaterials based on aggregation-induced emission luminogens for cancer photoimmunotherapy. Responsive Mater. 2 , e20240003 (2024)..

Zhang, H. Q., Liu, Y. P. & Qu, S. N. Recent advances in photo-responsive carbon dots for tumor therapy. Responsive Mater. 2 , e20240012 (2024)..

Li, H. et al. Near-infrared (NIR) fluorescence-emitting small organic molecules for cancer imaging and therapy. Chem. Soc. Rev. 51 , 8957–9008 (2022)..

Dong, K. Y. et al. Photoactivated self-assembled nanomicelles integrating mitophagy inhibition to enhance pyroptosis for cancer immunotherapy. Adv. Funct. Mater. 35 , 2504384 (2025)..

Xu, Y., Tang, Y. Q. & Li, Q. Visible- and near-infrared light-driven molecular photoswitches for biological applications. Adv. Funct. Mater. 35 , 2416359 (2025)..

Fan, F. et al. Second near-infrared window fluorescence materials for in vivo dynamic multiplexed imaging. Adv. Funct. Mater. 35 , 2422693 (2025)..

Li, C. Y. et al. Advanced fluorescence imaging technology in the near-infrared-Ⅱ window for biomedical applications. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 142 , 14789–14804 (2020)..

Hou, Y. et al. Multi-resolution analysis enables fidelity-ensured deconvolution for fluorescence microscopy. eLight . 4 , 14 (2024)..

Shang, L. D. et al. Time-resolved photon counting Fourier-transform micro-spectroscopy enables simultaneous Raman and fluorescence lifetime imaging. Light Sci. Appl. 14 , 378 (2025)..

Okkelman, I. A. et al. Visualizing the internalization and biological impact of nanoplastics in live intestinal organoids by Fluorescence Lifetime Imaging Microscopy (FLIM). Light Sci. Appl. 14 , 272 (2025)..

Hong, G. S. et al. Multifunctional in vivo vascular imaging using near-infrared Ⅱ fluorescence. Nat. Med. 18 , 1841–1846 (2012)..

Bruns, O. T. et al. Next-generation in vivo optical imaging with short-wave infrared quantum dots. Nat. Biomed. Eng. 1 , 0056 (2017)..

Chang, B. S. et al. A phosphoresc ent probe for in vivo imaging in the second near-infrared window. Nat. Biomed. Eng. 6 , 629–639 (2022)..

Miao, X. F. et al. Alleviating NIR-Ⅱ emission quenching in ring-fused fluorophore via manipulating dimerpopulations for superior fluorescence imaging. Light Sci. Appl. 14 , 109 (2025)..

Feng, Z. et al. Perfecting and extending the near-infrared imaging window. Light Sci. Appl. 10 , 197 (2021)..

Wang, F. F. et al. In vivo NIR-Ⅱ fluorescence imaging for biology and medicine. Nat. Photonics 18 , 535–547 (2024)..

Chen, M. X. et al. Long-term monitoring of intravital biological processes using fluorescent protein-assisted NIR-Ⅱ imaging. Nat. Commun. 13 , 6643 (2022)..

Lu, L. F. et al. NIR-Ⅱ bioluminescence for in vivo high contrast imaging and in situ ATP-mediated metastases tracing. Nat. Commun. 11 , 4192 (2020)..

He, S. Q. et al. Crucial breakthrough of second near-infrared biological window fluorophores: design and synthesis toward multimodal imaging and theranostics. Chem. Soc. Rev. 47 , 4258–4278 (2018)..

Smith, A. M., Mancini, M. C. & Nie, S. M. Bioimaging: second window for in vivo imaging. Nat. Nanotechnol. 4 , 710–711 (2009)..

Welsher, K. et al. A route to brightly fluorescent carbon nanotubes for near-infrared imaging in mice. Nat. Nanotechnol. 4 , 773–780 (2009)..

Welsher, K., Sherlock, S. P. & Dai, H. J. Deep-tissue anatomical imaging of mice using carbon nanotube fluorophores in the second near-infrared window. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 108 , 8943–8948 (2011)..

Yang, H. C. et al. Colloidal alloyed quantum dots with enhanced photoluminescence quantum yield in the NIR-Ⅱ window. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 143 , 2601–2607 (2021)..

Zhang, M. X. et al. Bright quantum dots emitting at ~1,600 nm in the NIR-Ⅱb window for deep tissue fluorescence imaging. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 115 , 6590–6595 (2018)..

Yang, H. C. et al. Au-doped Ag 2 Te quantum dots with bright NIR-Ⅱb fluorescence for in situ monitoring of angiogenesis and arteriogenesis in a hindlimb ischemic model. Adv. Mater. 33 , 2103953 (2021)..

Wang, T. et al. A hybrid erbium(Ⅲ)-bacteriochlorin near-infrared probe for multiplexed biomedical imaging. Nat. Mater. 20 , 1571–1578 (2021)..

Pei, P. et al. X-ray-activated persistent luminescence nanomaterials for NIR-Ⅱ imaging. Nat. Nanotechnol. 16 , 1011–1018 (2021)..

Zhong, Y. T. et al. In vivo molecular imaging for immunotherapy using ultra-bright near-infrared-Ⅱb rare-earth nanoparticles. Nat. Biotechnol. 37 , 1322–1331 (2019)..

Wang, W. Q. et al. Semiconducting polymer nanoparticles for NIR-Ⅱ fluorescence imaging-guided photothermal/thermodynamic combination therapy. Biomater. Sci. 10 , 846–853 (2022)..

Cai, Y. et al. Optical nano-agents in the second near-infrared window for biomedical applications. Chem. Soc. Rev. 48 , 22–37 (2019)..

Lei, Z. H. & Zhang, F. Molecular engineering of NIR-Ⅱ fluorophores for improved biomedical detection. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 60 , 16294–16308 (2021)..

Yang, Q. L. et al. Rational design of molecular fluorophores for biological imaging in the NIR-Ⅱ window. Adv. Mater. 29 , 1605497 (2017)..

Yao, C. Z. et al. A bright, renal-clearable NIR-Ⅱ brush macromolecular probe with long blood circulation time for kidney disease bioimaging. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 61 , e202114273 (2022)..

Wan, H. et al. A bright organic NIR-Ⅱ nanofluorophore for three-dimensional imaging into biological tissues. Nat. Commun. 9 , 1171 (2018)..

Cosco, E. D. et al. Shortwave infrared polymethine fluorophores matched to excitation lasers enable non-invasive, multicolour in vivo imaging in real time. Nat. Chem. 12 , 1123–1130 (2020)..

He, M. X. et al. Room temperature phosphorescence materials based on small organic molecules: design strategies and applications. Responsive Mater. 2 , e20240014 (2024)..

Dai, H. M. et al. NIR-Ⅱ organic nanotheranostics for precision oncotherapy. Small 17 , 2102646 (2021)..

Su, Y. B. et al. NIR-Ⅱ bioimag ing of small organic molecule. Biomaterials 271 , 120717 (2021)..

Wang, J. F. et al. Brain-targeted aggregation-induced-emission nanoparticles with near-infrared imaging at 1550 nm boosts orthotopic glioblastoma theranostics. Adv. Mater. 34 , 2106082 (2022)..

He, K. S. et al. Comparison between the indocyanine green fluorescence and blue dye methods for sentinel lymph node biopsy using novel fluorescence image-guided resection equipment in different types of hospitals. Transl. Res. 178 , 74–80 (2016)..

van Manen, L. et al. A practical guide for the use of indocyanine green and methylene blue in fluorescence-guided abdominal surgery. J. Surg. Oncol. 118 , 283–300 (2018)..

Carr, J. A. et al. Shortwave infrared fluorescence imaging with the clinically approved near-infrared dye indocyanine green. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 115 , 4465–4470 (2018)..

Hu, Z. H. et al. First-in-human liver-tumour surgery guided by multispectral fluorescence imaging in the visible and near-infrared-Ⅰ/Ⅱ windows. Nat. Biomed. Eng. 4 , 259–271 (2020)..

Schafer, V. S. et al. A novel arthritis in vivo fluorescence optical imaging technology pushed to the limits. Rheumatology 52 , 1144–1145 (2013)..

Liu, X. Y. et al. Design of NIR-Ⅱ high performance organic small molecule fluorescent probes and summary of their biomedical applications. Coord. Chem. Rev. 468 , 214609 (2022)..

Choi, H. S. & Kim, H. K. Multispectral image-guided surgery in patients. Nat. Biomed. Eng. 4 , 245–246 (2020)..

Lan, R. D. et al. Folate receptor-targeted NIR-Ⅱ dual-model nanoprobes for multiscale visualization of macrophages in rheumatoid arthritis. Adv. Funct. Mater. 33 , 2300342 (2023)..

Kamya, E. et al. Effective design of organic luminogens for near-infrared-Ⅱ fluorescence imaging and photo-mediated therapy. J. Mater. Chem. B 10 , 9770–9788 (2022)..

Ding, C. P. & Ren, T. B. Near infrared fluorescent probes for detecting and imaging active small molecules. Coord. Chem. Rev. 482 , 215080 (2023)..

Ma, D. D. et al. Recent advances in the design and applications of near-infrared Ⅱ responsive small molecule phototherapeutic agents. Coord. Chem. Rev. 505 , 215677 (2024)..

Zhou, C. et al. Near-infrared Ⅱ theranostic agents for thediagnosis and treatment of Alzheimer’s disease. Eur. J. Nucl. Med. Mol. Imaging 51 , 2953–2969 (2024)..

Chen, Z. K. et al. Activatable molecular probes with clinical promise for NIR-Ⅱ fluorescent imaging. Small 21 , 2411787 (2025)..

Zhang, W. J. et al. Advances on fluorescence bioimaging and photo-mediated therapy of NIR-Ⅱ small molecule dyes. Coord. Chem. Rev. 534 , 216587 (2025)..

Karton-Lifshin, N. et al. Unique paradigm for a Turn-ON near-infrared cyanine-based probe: noninvasive intravital optical imaging of hydrogen peroxide. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 133 , 10960–10965 (2011)..

Mourot, B. et al. Coupled polymethine dyes: six decades of discoveries. Chem. Rec. 24 , e202400183 (2024)..

Zhu, W. et al. Zwitterionic AIEgens: rational molecular design for NIR-Ⅱ fluorescence imaging-guided synergistic phototherapy. Adv. Funct. Mater. 31 , 2007026 (2021)..

Wang, C. L. et al. Dye-sensitized downconversion nanoprobes with emission beyond 1500 nm for ratiometric visualization of cancer redox state. Adv. Funct. Mater. 31 , 2009942 (2021)..

Zhang, Y. Q. et al. Smart on-site immobilizable near-infrared Ⅱ fluorescent nanoprobes for ultra-long-term imaging-guided tumor surgery and photothermal therapy. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 13 , 12857–12865 (2021)..

Gu, H. et al. Single-molecule photosensitizers for NIR-Ⅱ fluorescence and photoacoustic imaging guided precise anticancer phototherapy. Chem. Sci. 13 , 9719–9726 (2022)..

Jin, T. X. et al. Engineering naphthalimide-cyanine integrated near-infrared dye into ROS-responsive nanohybrids for tumor PDT/PTT/chemotherapy. Bioact. Mater. 14 , 42–51 (2022)..

Shi, X. J. et al. PET/NIR-Ⅱ fluorescence imaging and image-guided surgery of glioblastoma using a folate receptor α-targeted dual-modal nanoprobe. Eur. J. Nucl. Med. Mol. Imaging 49 , 4325–4337 (2022)..

Yang, Y. et al. Counterion-paired bright heptamethine fluorophores with NI R-Ⅱ excitation and emission enable multiplexed biomedical imaging. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 61 , e202117436 (2022)..

Jia, H. X. et al. Near-infrared fluorescent probes for non-invasive, real-time, and dual-color in vivo NIR-Ⅱ imaging. Sens. Actuators B: Chem. 396 , 134595 (2023)..

Li, D. H. et al. Doubly strapped zwitterionic NIR-Ⅰ and NIR-Ⅱ heptamethine cyanine dyes for bioconjugation and fluorescence imaging. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 62 , e202305062 (2023)..

Tian, Y. et al. Dual-key-and-lock” NIR-Ⅱ NSCyanines enable high-contrast activatable phototheranostics in extrahepatic diseases. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 62 , e202309768 (2023)..

Zeng, C. et al. Renal-clearable probe with water solubility and photostability for biomarker-activatable detection of acute kidney injuries via NIR-Ⅱ fluorescence and optoacoustic imaging. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 15 , 17664–17674 (2023)..

Zhao, L. et al. Near-infrared Ⅱ hemicyanine dye with large stokes shift designed by TICT regulation for boosting imaging-guided photothermal therapy. Adv. Healthc. Mater. 12 , 2301584 (2023)..

Sun, Y. Y. et al. A novel NIR-Ⅱ albumin-escaping probe for cerebral arteries and perfusion imaging in stroke mice model. Biomaterials 311 , 122664 (2024)..

Swamy, M. M. M. et al. Biocompatible and water-soluble shortwave-infrared (SWIR)-emitting cyanine-based fluorescent probes for in vivo multiplexed molecular imaging. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 16 , 17253–17266 (2024)..

Wan, Y. P. et al. Neutral cyanine: ultra-stable NIR-Ⅱ merocyanines for highly efficient bioimaging and tumor-targeted phototheranostics. Adv. Mater. 36 , 2405966 (2024)..

Xu, M. L. et al. Nanoprobe based on novel NIR-Ⅱ quinolinium cyanine for multimodal imaging. Small 20 , 2406879 (2024)..

Yang, Y. L. et al. A carbonic anhydrase-targeted NIR-Ⅱ fluorescent cisplatin theranostic nanoparticle for combined therapy of pancreatic tumors. Biomaterials 305 , 122454 (2024)..

Yu, J. F., Li, J. L. & Li, M. An intramolecular rotor-bridged dimeric cyanine photothermal transducer for efficient near-infrared Ⅱ fluorescence imaging-guided mitochondria-targeted phototherapy. ACS Sens. 9 , 3581–3593 (2024)..

Yu, J. F., Wen, Y. & Li, M. An active self-mitochondria-targeting cyanine immunomodulator for near-infrared Ⅱ fluorescence imaging-guided synergistic photodynamic immunotherapy. Adv. Healthc. Mater. 13 , 2401061 (2024)..

Chen, Z. et al. High spatiotemporal near-Infrared Ⅱ fluorescence lifetime imaging for quantitative detection of clinical tumor margins. Adv. Sci. 12 , 2411272 (2025)..

Dang, Z. T. et al. In situ albumin tagging for targeted imaging of endothelial barrier disruption. Sci. Adv. 11 , eads4412 (2025)..

Gao, W. J. et al. NIR-Ⅱ cyazulene fluorophores with adjustable cycloalkenes and spectroscopic properties for imaging applications. Adv. Healthc. Mater. 14 , 2404996 (2025)..

Ge, R. T. et al. Indocyanine polymethine fluorophores with extended π -conjugation emitting beyond 1,200 nm for enhanced NIR-Ⅱ imaging. Chem 11 , 102489 (2025)..

Huang, L. X. et al. A hydrogen sulfide-activated NIR-Ⅱ fluorescence/NIR-Ⅰ photoacoustic dual-ratiometric nanoprobe with unique recognition reaction for precise visual diagnosis of hepatitis disease. Small 21 , 2501269 (2025)..

Kang, H. et al. Cartilage-targeting fluorophores for early detection of arthritis in the NIR-Ⅱ window. Chem 11 , 102481 (2025)..

Ou, Y. F. et al. Constructing stable and wavelength-extended heptamethine cyanines via donor ectopic substitution for NIR-Ⅱa/b bioimaging. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 64 , e202423978 (2025)..

Wang, Y. C. et al. Molecular imaging of ovarian follicles and tumors with near-infrared Ⅱ bioconjugates. Adv. Mater. 37 , 2414129 (2025)..

Wang, Y. H. et al. Glutathione-activated near-infrared Ⅱ fluorescent probe for lung metastatic diagnosis and intraoperative imaging of tumor. Sens. Actuators B: Chem. 426 , 137005 (2025)..

Xu, J. J. et al. NIR-Ⅱ fluorescent protein created by in situ albumin-tagging for sensitive and specific imaging of blood-brain barrier disruption. Adv. Sci. 12 , 2500443 (2025)..

Zhang, R. R. et al. Rational design of NIR-Ⅱ fluorescence/photoacoustic nanosensor tailored for mechanisms of diabetes-related breast cancer. Adv. Mater. 37 , 2 415891 (2025)..

Chen, G. et al. Biodegradable ICG-conjugated germanium nanoparticles for in vivo near-infrared dual-modality imaging and photothermal therapy. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 16 , 59752–59764 (2024)..

Xia,W. L. et al. Optimized indocyanine green nanopreparations for biomedical applications. Coord. Chem. Rev. 528 , 216422 (2025)..

Friedman, H. C. et al. Establishing design principles for emissive organic SWIR chromophores from energy gap laws. Chem 7 , 3359–3376 (2021)..

Gopika, G. S. et al. Chemistry of cyanine dyes-a review. Mater. Today Proc. 46 , 3102–3108 (2021)..

Medeiros, N. G. et al. Near-infrared fluorophores based on heptamethine cyanine dyes: from their synthesis and photophysical properties to recent optical sensing and bioimaging applications. Asian J. Org. Chem. 11 , e202200095 (2022)..

Du, J. et al. Highly stable and bright NIR-Ⅱ AIE dots for intraoperative identification of ureter. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 12 , 8040–8049 (2020)..

Fang, Y. et al. Design, synthesis, and application of a small molecular NIR-Ⅱ fluorophore with maximal emission beyond 1200 nm. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 142 , 15271–15275 (2020)..

Li, S. L. et al. in vivo real-time pharmaceutical evaluations of near-infrared Ⅱ fluorescent nanomedicine bound polyethylene glycol ligands for tumor photothermal ablation. ACS Nano 14 , 13681–13690 (2020)..

Lin, J. C. et al. A novel small-molecule near-infrared Ⅱ fluorescence probe for orthotopic osteosarcoma imaging. Sci. China Chem. 63 , 766–770 (2020)..

Wang, S. W. et al. NIR-Ⅱ light activated photosensitizer with aggregation-induced emission for precise and efficient two-photon photodynamic cancer cell ablation. Adv. Funct. Mater. 30 , 2002546 (2020)..

Cheng, Z. J. et al. D-A-D structured selenadiazolesbenzothiadiazole-based near-infrared dye for enhanced photoacoustic imaging and photothermal cancer therapy. Chin. Chem. Lett. 32 , 1580–1585 (2021)..

Fan, X. X. et al. Aggregation-induced emission (AIE) nanoparticles-assisted NIR-Ⅱ fluorescence imaging-guided diagnosis and surgery for inflammato ry bowel disease (IBD). Adv. Healthc. Mater. 10 , 2101043 (2021)..

He, K. et al. High-stability NIR-Ⅱ fluorescence polymer synthesized by atom transfer radical polymerization for application in high-resolution NIR-Ⅱ imaging. Biomater. Sci. 9 , 6434–6443 (2021)..

Hu, X. M. et al. Rational design of all-organic nanoplatform for highly efficient MR/NIR-Ⅱ imaging-guided cancer phototheranostics. Small 17 , 2007566 (2021)..

Jia, R. Z. et al. NIR-Ⅱ emissive AIEgen photosensitizers enable ultrasensitive imaging-guided surgery and phototherapy to fully inhibit orthotopic hepatic tumors. J. Nanobiotechnol. 19 , 419 (2021)..

Chen, J. J. et al. Refashioning benzothiadiazole dye as an activatable nanoprobe for biomarker detection with NIR-Ⅱ fluorescence/optoacoustic imaging. Cell Rep. Phys. Sci. 3 , 100570 (2022)..

Ou, C. J. et al. Promoting near-infrared Ⅱ fluorescence efficiency by blocking long-range energy migration. Aggregate 4 , e290 (2023)..

Song, S. L. et al. Molecular engineering of AIE luminogens for NI R-Ⅱ/IIb bioimaging and surgical navigation of lymph nodes. Matter 5 , 2847–2863 (2022)..

Wang, Z. J. et al. Dynamic adjust of non-radiative and radiative attenuation of AIE molecules reinforces NIR-Ⅱ imaging mediated photothermal therapy and immunotherapy. Adv. Sci. 9 , 2104793 (2022)..

Xu, R. T. et al. Highly bright aggregation-induced emission nanodots for precise photoacoustic/NIR-Ⅱ fluorescence imaging-guided resection of neuroendocrine neoplasms and sentinel lymph nodes. Biomaterials 289 , 121780 (2022)..

Chen, S. Y. et al. Increasing molecular planarity through donor/side-chain engineering for improved NIR-Ⅱa fluorescence imaging and NIR-Ⅱ photothermal therapy under 1064 nm. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 62 , e202215372 (2023)..

Li, D. et al. Molecular engineering of NIR-Ⅱ AIE luminogen excited at 1700 nm for ultradeep intravital brain two-photon fluorescence imaging. Adv. Funct. Mater. 33 , 2303967 (2023)..

Liang, M. K. et al. Furan-modified thiadiazolo quinoxaline as an electron acceptor for constructing second near-infrared aggregation-induced emission fluorophores for beyond 1300 nm fluorescence/photoacoustic imaging and photothermal therapy. Aggregate 5 , e458 (2024)..

Sparks, N. E. et al. Synthesis and characterization of novel thienothiadiazole-based D-π-A-π-D fluorophores as potential NIR imaging agents. ACS Omega 8 , 24513–24523 (2023)..

Wu, G. L. et al. Rational design of molecular phototheranostic platform for NIR-Ⅱ fluorescence imaging guided chemodynamic-photothermal combined therapy. Chem. Eng. J. 463 , 142372 (2023)..

Xiao, P. P. et al. A ratiometric near-infrared fluorescence/photoacoustic dual-modal probe with strong donor dithienopyrrole for in vivo nitric oxide detection. Biomaterials 294 , 121993 (2023)..

Yang, S. et al. NIR-Ⅱ imaging-guided mitochondrial-targeting organic nanoparticles for multimodal synergistic tumortherapy. Small 19 , 2207995 (2023)..

Gao, H. et al. Near-infrared Ⅱ aggregation-induced electrochemiluminescence of organic dots. Chem. Commun. 60 , 562–565 (2024)..

Liu, Y. et al. Carrier-free biomimetic organic nanoparticles with super-high drug loading for targeted NIR-Ⅱ excitable triple-modal bioimaging and phototheranostics. Small 20 , 2406003 (2024)..

Ma, G. C. et al. Precision photothermal therapy at mild temperature: NIR-Ⅱ imaging-guided, H 2 O 2 -responsive stealth nanobomb. Adv. Healthc. Mater. 14 , 2402767 (2025)..

Song, S. L. et al. An NIR-Ⅱ excitable AIE small molecule with multimodal phototheranostic features for orthotopic breast cancer treatment. Adv. Mater. 36 , 2309748 (2024)..

Xu, H. H. et al. Ultrabright NIR-Ⅱ nanoprobe for image-guided accurate resection of tiny metastatic lesions. Nano Lett. 24 , 1367–1375 (2024)..

Zhang, X. Y. et al. Organic NIR-Ⅱ nanofluorophore with ultrahigh quantum yield for vessels imaging and fluorescence image-guided surgery. Adv. Funct. Mater. 35 , 2413341 (2025)..

Zhou, D. M. et al. Near-infrared Ⅱ agent with excellent overall performance for imaging-guided photothermal thrombolysis. ACS Nano 18 , 25144–25154 (2024)..

Du, K. H. et al. A near-infrared Ⅱ luminogen with a photothermal effect toward tumor drug resistance reversal. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 17 , 333–341 (2025)..

Li, J. G. et al. As aggregation-induced emission meets with noncovalent conformational locks: subtly regulating NIR-Ⅱ molecules for multimodal imaging-navigated synergistic therapies. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 64 , e202413219 (2025)..

Luo, Y. et al. Regioisomerism in NIR-Ⅱ-emissive semiconducting biradicals for high-performance bioimaging and phototheranostics of tumors. Mater. Horiz. 12 , 3115–3126 (2025)..

Shen, H. C. et al. A bright organic fluorophore for accurate measurement of the relative quantum yield in the NIR-Ⅱ window. Small 21 , 2411866 (2025)..

Yan, X. K. et al. A water-soluble aggregation-induced emission luminogen for NIR-Ⅰ/NIR-Ⅱ fluorescence imaging of breast cancer bone metastases. Biosens. Bioelectron. 268 , 116903 (2025)..

Zhan, Y. L. et al. Tracking in vivo lipolysis of lipid nanocarriers using NIR-Ⅱ polarity-sensitive fluorescent probes. Small Methods 9 , 2402249 (2025)..

Zhang, Y. et al. Hierarchical targeting nanoplatform for NIR-Ⅱ photoacoustic imaging and photo-act ivated synergistic immunotherapy of glioblastoma. Adv. Funct. Mater. 35 , 2419395 (2025)..

Zhu, J. et al. Icing on the cake: integrating optical fiber with second near-infrared aggregation-induced emission luminogen for exceptional phototheranostics of bladder cancer. Adv. Mater. 37 , 2502452 (2025)..

Wang, L. C. et al. Benzobisthiadiazole-based small molecular near-infrared-Ⅱ fluorophores: from molecular engineering to nanophototheranostics. ACS Nano 18 , 4683–4703 (2024)..

Qi, J. et al. Real-time and high-resolution bioimaging with bright aggregation-induced emission dots in short-wave infrared region. Adv. Mater. 30 , 1706856 (2018)..

Wu, Q. H. et al. Strategic construction of ethene-bridged BODIPY arrays with absorption bands reaching the near-infrared Ⅱ region. Org. Lett. 22 , 7513–7517 (2020)..

Huang, W. J. et al. Rigidity bridging flexibility to harmonize three excited-state deactivation pathways for NIR-Ⅱ-fluorescent-imaging-guided phototherapy. Adv. Healthc. Mater. 10 , 2101003 (2021)..

Liu, Q. et al. Thiophene donor for NIR-Ⅱ fluorescence imaging-guided photothermal/photodynamic/chemo combination therapy. Acta Biomater. 127 , 287–297 (2021)..

Liu, Q. et al. Near-Infrared-Ⅱ nanoparticles for cancer imaging of immune checkpoint programmed death-ligand 1 and photodynamic/immune therapy. ACS Nano 15 , 515–525 (2021)..

Xu, Y. J. et al. Highly stable organic photothermal agent based on near-infrared-Ⅱ fluorophores for tumor treatment. J. Nanobiotechnol. 19 , 37 (2021)..

Zhu, T. L. et al. Probing the intracellular dynamics of nitric oxide and hydrogen sulfide using an activatable NIR Ⅱ fluorescence reporter. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 60 , 8450–8454 (2021)..

Zou, J. H. et al. Singlet oxygen “afterglow” therapy with NIR-Ⅱ fluorescent molecules. Adv. Mater. 33 , 2103627 (2021)..

Bian, S. S. et al. Pyrrolopyrrole aza-BODIPY-based NIR-Ⅱ fluorophores for in vivo dynamic vascular dysfunction visualization of vascular-targeted photodynamic therapy. Biomaterials 298 , 122130 (2023)..

Xu, J. et al. NIR-Ⅱ abs orbing monodispersed oligomers based on N-B←N unit. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 62 , e202310838 (2023)..

Cao, L. L. et al. Novel NIR-Ⅱ 3,5-Julolidinyl aza-BODIPY for photothermal therapy of gliomas stem cells by brain stereotactic injection. ACS Mater. Lett. 6 , 4765–4773 (2024)..

Mei, Y. et al. Dual-responsive near-infrared BODIPY-based fluorescent probe for the detection of F - and HClO in organisms. Anal. Chem. 96 , 3802–3809 (2024)..

Song, Y. F. et al. Finely tunable NIR-Ⅱ organic scaffolds for fluorescence/photoacoustic duplex imaging–guided noninvasive photothermal therapy of glioblastoma. Aggregate 6 , e680 (2025)..

Xing, X. J. et al. D-A-D-structured boron-dipyrromethene with aggregation-induced enhanced phototherapeutic efficiency for near-infrared fluorescent and photoacoustic imaging-guided synergistic photodynamic and photothermal cancer therapy. Chin. Chem. Lett. 35 , 109452 (2024)..

Yang, M. W. et al. BOIMPY scaffold: accessing ultrahigh molar extinction coefficient AIEgen for SWIR imaging-guided photothermal cancer ablation. Adv. Funct. Mater. 35 , 2411838 (2025)..

Gao, M. J. et al. NIR-Ⅱ emissive aza-BODIPY-based nanoparticles for triggering glioblastoma apoptosis in brain. Chin. Chem. Lett. 36 , 110098 (2025)..

Sun, L. X. et al. A smart visualized phototherapy switch: from NIR-Ⅰ imaging-guided photodynamic therapy to NIR-Ⅱ-guided photothermal therapy for enhanced cascade tumor photoablation. Aggregate 6 , e70007 (2025)..

Zhao, B. Y. et al. Near-infrared fluorescent Aza-BODIPY dyes: rational structural design and biomedical imaging. J. Lumin. 263 , 120099 (2023)..

Liu, D. K. et al. Xanthene-based NIR-Ⅱ dyes for in vivo dynamic imaging of blood circulation. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 143 , 17136–17143 (2021)..

Ren, T. B. et al. A general strategy for development of activatable NIR-Ⅱ fluorescent probes for in vivo high-contrast bioimaging. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 60 , 800–805 (2021)..

Zhang, X. et al. ROS/RNS and base dual activatable merocyanine-based NIR-Ⅱ fluorescent molecular probe for in vivo biosensing. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 60 , 26337–26341 (2021)..

Qin, Z. J. et al. NIRII-HDs: a versatile platform for developing activatable NIR-Ⅱ fluorogenic probes for reliable in vivo analyte sensing. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 61 , e202201541 (2022)..

Ye, M. T. et al. Monitoring Hg 2+ and MeHg + poisoning in living body with an activatable near-infrared Ⅱ fluorescence probe. J. Hazard. Mater. 445 , 130612 (2023)..

Gao, X. et al. Design, synthesis, and in vivo imaging of a stable xanthene-based dye with NIR-Ⅱ emission up to 1450 nm. Anal. Chem. 97 , 1827–1836 (2025)..

Xu, X. Y. et al. Rational design of lipid-activatable NIR-Ⅱ probes for precisely imaging atherosclerotic plaque. Sci. China Chem. 68 , 2138–2145 (2025)..

Zhang, M. R. et al. A near-infrared Ⅱ fluorescent dye based on oxanthracene: real-time imaging of drug-induced acute liver injury and photothermal therapy for tumor. Chin. Chem. Lett. 36 , 110772 (2025)..

Zhu, L. W. et al. Aggregation induced emission luminogen bacteria hybrid bionic robot for multimodal phototheranostics and immunotherapy. Nat. Commun. 16 , 2578 (2025)..

Liu, D. K. et al. Near-infraredⅡ cyanine fluorophores with large stokes shift engineered by regulating respective absorption and emission. Nat. Commun. 16 , 4911 (2025)..

Yan, S. R. et al. Divergent donor-excited photoinduced electron transfer effect: unsuppressed second near-infrared fluorescence but unexpected role in activatable imaging-guided photothermal therapy. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 17 , 33581–33591 (2025)..

Chai, Y. et al. Reversible pH-switchable NIR-Ⅱ nano-photosensitizer for precise imaging and photodynamic therapy of tumors. Acta Biomater. 188 , 315–328 (2024)..

Yang, F. Y. et al. Development of NIR-Ⅱ ratiometric fluorescent nanoprobe for HClO imaging in acute lung injury. Adv. Healthc. Mater. 14 , 2402264 (2025)..

Karaman, O. et al. Xanthene dyes for cancer imaging and treatment: a material odyssey. Coord. Chem. Rev. 475 , 214841 (2023)..

Li, J. F. et al. A class of activatable NIR-Ⅱ photoacoustic dyes for high-contrast bioimaging. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 63 , e202312632 (2024)..

Zhang, Z. J. et al. An all-round athlete on the track of phototheranostics: subtly regulating the balance between radiative and nonradiative decays for multimodal imaging-guided synergistic therapy. Adv. Mater. 32 , 2003210 (2020)..

Yin, B. L. et al. Tongue cancer tailored photosensitizers for NIR-Ⅱ fluorescence imaging guided precise treatment. Nano Today 45 , 101550 (2022)..

Liu, Y. Z. et al. Novel dibenzofulvene-based NIR-Ⅱ emission phototheranostic agent with an 82.6% photothermal conversion efficiency for photothermal therapy. Adv. Funct. Mater. 34 , 2311365 (2024)..

Lee, K. W. et al. Construction of through-space charge-transfer nanoparticles for facilely realizing high-performance NIR-Ⅱ cancer phototheranostics. Adv. Funct. Mater. 34 , 2407317 (2024)..

Li, C. B. et al. Side chain phenyl isomerization-induced spatial conjugation for achieving efficient near-infrared Ⅱ phototheranostic agents. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 64 , e202419785 (2025)..

Tang, Y. Y. et al. Thienothiophene-benzopyran derivative and AQ4N-assembled liposomes for near-infrare d Ⅱ fluorescence imaging-guided phototherapy, chemotherapy, and immune activation. Small 21 , 2407680 (2025)..

Tang, Y. Q., Xiang, D. & Li, Q. In situ secondary self-assembly of near-infrared Ⅱ J-aggregates: a novel phototheranostic strategy for inducing tumor pyroptosis. Adv. Mater. 37 , 2501184 (2025)..

Wang, Q. et al. High-efficiency organic semiconducting small molecule for deep-tissue phototheranostics: single 1064 nm laser triggered NIR-Ⅱb fluorescence imaging guided type-Ⅰ photodynamic/photothermal combination therapy. Adv. Funct. Mater. 35 , 2423165 (2025)..

Yamasumi, K. et al. Synthesis of helically π-extended N-confused porphyrin dimer via meso -bipyrrole-bridge with near-infrared-Ⅱ absorption capability. Chem.-A Eur. J. 26 , 13590–13594 (2020)..

Sinha, N. et al. A near-infrared-Ⅱ emissive chromium(Ⅲ) complex. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 60 , 23722–23728 (2021)..

Fan, Y. F. et al. NIR-Ⅱ emissive Ru(Ⅱ) metallacycle assisting fluorescence imaging and cancer therapy. Small 18 , 2201625 (2022)..

Xu, J. et al. Highly hydrophilic quaternary ammonium salt containing organotin (Ⅳ) carboxylate for visualization of antibacterial action and multi-photon absorption activity. Dyes Pigm. 200 , 110186 (2022)..

Xu, Y. L. et al. Long wavelength-emissive Ru(Ⅱ) metallacycle-based photosensitizer assisting in vivo bacterial diagnosis and antibacterial treatment. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 119 , e2209904119 (2022)..

Chen, H. R. et al. Synergistic comprehensive activation methods for dual-modality PDT and hypoxia-triggered chemotherapy guided by NIR-Ⅱ imaging beyond 1700 nm in deep tumors. Small 21 , 2500553 (2025)..

Ghosh, A. et al. Metal-bridging cyclic bilatriene analogue affords stable π-radicaloid dyes with near-infrared Ⅱ absorption. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 64 , e202418751 (2025)..

Li, C. L. et al. Near-infrared metal agents assisting precision medicine: from strategic design to bioimaging and therapeutic applications. Chem. Soc. Rev. 52 , 4392–4442 (2023)..

Zou, J. W. et al. Activatable small-molecule NIR fluorescent/photoacoustic probes for brain disease imaging. Coord. Chem. Rev. 547 , 217149 (2026)..

del Valle, J. et al. A new method for determining blood-brain barrier integrity based on intracardiac perfusion of an Evans Blue-Hoechst cocktail. J. Neurosci. Methods 174 , 42–49 (2008)..

Lee, S. et al. ZW800-1 for assessment of blood-brain barrier disruption in a photothrombotic stroke model. Int. J. Med. Sci. 14 , 1430–1435 (2017)..

Saunders, N. R. et al. The biological significance of brain barrier mechanisms: help or hindrance in drug delivery to the central nervous system? F1000Research 5 , 313 (2016)..

Kanabur, P., Chai, C. & Taylor, J. Use of indocyanine green for intraoperative ureteral identification in nonurologic surgery. JAMA Surg. 155 , 520–521 (2020)..

Wu, F. P. et al. Access to diverse activatable heptamethine cyanine probes with low intrinsic fluorescence via 5- exo - trig cyclization strategy for high-contrast bioimaging in vivo. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 64 , e202423059 (2025)..

Chou, P. C. et al. Impact of diabetes on promoting the growth of breast cancer. Cancer Commun. 41 , 414–431 (2021)..

Tan, L. Y. et al. Ultrasensitive chemiluminescent probe activated by NAG for real-time monitoring of AKI. Bioorg. Chem. 164 , 108817 (2025)..

Tan, J. H. et al. Real-time monitoring renal impairment due to drug-induced AKI and diabetes-caused CKD using an NAG-activatable NIR-Ⅱ nanoprobe. Anal. Chem. 93 , 16158–16165 (2021)..

Antaris, A. L. et al. A small-molecule dye for NIR-Ⅱ imaging. Nat. Mater. 15 , 235–242 (2016)..

Tian, R. et al. Multiplexed NIR-Ⅱ probes for lymph node-invaded cancer detection and imaging-guided surgery. Adv. Mater. 32 , 1907365 (2020)..

Ma, Z. R. et al. Deep learning for in vivo near-infrared imaging. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 118 , e2021446118 (2021)..

Ma, X. X. et al. Rational design and application of an indolium-derived heptamethine cyanine with record-long second near-infrared emission. CCS Chem. 4 , 1961–1976 (2022)..

Cheng, P. et al. Donor–acceptor–donor near-infrared-Ⅱ aggregation-induced emission luminogens (AIEgens) encapsulated within nanometer-sized exosomes for tumor imaging. ACS Appl. Nano Mater. 6 , 10736–10745 (2023)..

Liu, W. J. et al. Molecularly locked π -bridge endows AIEgen with 1064 nm excitation for deep tissue imaging. Adv. Funct. Mater. 35 , 2501668 (2025)..

Wang, Y. et al. Fluorescent probe for mercury ion imaging analysis: strategies and applications. Chem. Eng. J. 406 , 127166 (2021)..

Wong, K. C. Y. & Sletten, E. M. Extending optical chemical tools and technologies to mice by shifting to the shortwave infrared region. Curr. Opin. Chem. Biol. 68 , 102131 (2022)..

Paul, B. D. Neuroprotective roles of the reverse transsulfuration pathway in Alzheimer’s disease. Front. Aging Neurosci. 13 , 659402 (2021)..

Li, N. et al. A substituted-rhodamine-based reversible fluorescent probe for in vivo quantification of glutathione. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 62 , e202217326 (2023)..

Pan, Y. T. et al. Activatable NIR-Ⅱ fluorescence probe for highly sensitive and selective visualization of glutathione in vivo. Anal. Chem. 93 , 17103–17109 (2021)..

Zhao, Y. X. et al. Reaction-activated disassembly of the NIR-Ⅱ probe enables fast detection and ratiometric photoacoustic imaging of glutathione in vivo. Anal. Chem. 95 , 14043–14051 (2023)..

Sennino, B. et al. Inhibition of c-Met reduces lymphatic metastasis in RIP-Tag2 transgenic mice. Cancer Res. 73 , 3692–3703 (2013)..

Chen, J. J. et al. Aminopeptidase N activatable nanoprobe for tracking lymphatic metastasis and guiding tumor resection surgery via optoacoustic/NIR-Ⅱ fluorescence dual-mode imaging. Anal. Chem. 94 , 8449–8457 (2022)..

Wang, Z. H. et al. Chasing the rainbow: exploiting photosensitizers to drive photoisomerization reactions. Responsive Mater. 1 , e20230012 (2023)..

Yuan, J. et al. Design strategies and applications of cyanine dyes in phototherapy. Chem. Soc. Rev. 54 , 341–366 (2025)..

Cai, Y. Y . et al. Phototherapy in cancer treatment: strategies and challenges. Sig. Transduct. Target. Ther. 10 , 115 (2025)..

Li, J. Y. et al. New power of self-assembling carbonic anhydrase inhibitor: short peptide–constructed nanofibers inspire hypoxic cancer therapy. Sci. Adv. 5 , eaax0937 (2019)..

Demandt, J. A. F. et al. The hypoxia-sensor carbonic anhydrase Ⅸ affects macrophage metabolism,but is not a suitable biomarker for human cardiovascular disease. Sci. Rep. 11 , 425 (2021)..

Zhang, G. T. et al. Synergy of hypoxia relief and heat shock protein inhibition for phototherapy enhancement. J. Nanobiotechnol. 19 , 9 (2021)..

Xie, H. L. et al. Harnessing synergistic interplay of twisted and planar structures for the development of NIR-Ⅱ Phototheranostic agents. ACS Nano 19 , 37511–37524 (2025)..

Aldape, K. et al. Challenges to curing primary brain tumours. Nat. Rev. Clin. Oncol. 16 , 509–520 (2019)..

Zhao, F. et al. Maximum emission peak over 1500 nm of organic assembly for blood-brain barrier-crossing NIR -Ⅱb phototheranostics of orthotopic glioblastoma. Adv. Mater. 35 , 2208097 (2023)..

Zhou, J. et al. Engineering of a nanosized biocatalyst for combined tumor starvation and low-temperature photothermal therapy. ACS Nano 12 , 2858–2872 (2018)..

Zou, D. H. et al. Precise diffusion of gaseous H 2 S “Bomb” potentiates NIR-Ⅱ imaging-guided photothermal therapy by relieving heat tolerance and disturbing cellular homeostasis for synergistic orthotopic glioblastoma treatment. Adv. Funct. Mater. 35 , 2507384 (2025)..

Maughan, B. C. et al. Pulmonary embolism. BMJ 384 , e071662 (2024)..

Meng, X. et al. Microenvironment-activatable long-wavelength NIR-Ⅱ visualization and synergistic treatment of pulmonary embolism. ACS Nano 19 , 22454–22467 (2025)..

Ji, A. Y. et al. Acceptor engineering for NIR-Ⅱ dyes with high photochemical and biomedical performance. Nat. Commun. 13 , 3815 (2022)..

Zhang, C. L. et al. New xanthene dyes with NIR-Ⅱ emission beyond 1200 nm for efficient tumor angiography and photothermal therapy. Small 18 , 2202078 (2022)..

Liu, Y. S. et al. Aggregation-mediated photoacoustic/NIR-Ⅱ and photodynamic properties of pH-reversible thiopyrylium agents: a computational and experimental approach. Adv. Mater. 37 , 2420006 (2025)..

Zhao, X. X. et al. In situ self-assembled nanofibers precisely target cancer-associated fibroblasts for improved tumor imaging. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 58 , 15287–15294 (2019)..

Rossiter, S. E., Fletcher, M. H. & Wuest, W. M. Natural products as platforms to overcome antibiotic resistance. Chem. Rev. 117 , 12415–12474 (2017)..

Zhou, J. et al. Supramolecular cancer nanotheranostics. Chem. Soc. Rev. 50 , 2839–2891 (2021)..

Nguyen, V. N. et al. Heavy-atom-free photosensitizers: from molecular design to applications in the photodynamic therapy of cancer. Acc. Chem. Res. 54 , 207–220 (2021)..

Zhang, X. P. et al. Bone analysis using an aggregation-induced emission-active iridium complex. Aggregate 4 , e381 (2023)..

You, C. F. et al. The Midas touch by Iridium: a second near-infrared aggregation-induced emission-active Metallo-agent for exceptional phototheranostics of breast cancer. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 147 , 2010–2020 (2025)..